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Standardizing minimally invasive mucosal biopsies, spatially resolved metagenomics, and contamination controlssuch as synthetic spike-in standards and dual-indexed barcodingwill enhance the reproducibility and accuracy of microbiome data [135,136,137]

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The findings, the researchers said, suggest there are benefits to switching from cigarettes to smokeless tobacco, although they emphasized that complete cessation from all tobacco products and nicotine delivery systems should remain the ultimate goal

In some cases, e-cigarettes stimulate the production of ROS in alveolar macrophages, causing lung epithelial damage and neutrophil influx at injury sites, resulting in aggravated inflammation, mucus production, and destruction of alveolar cells, leading to airway obstruction [53]

doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2018-054389